Ethical Concepts and Ethical Theories: Establishing and Justifying a Moral System

REVIEW QUESTIONS 

1. What is ethics, and how can it be distinguished from morality?

Ethics is derived from the Greek ethos and morality from the Latin mores which in both terms refer to notions of custom, habit, behaviour, and character. 

2. What is meant by a moral system? What are some of the key differences between the "rules of conduct" and the "principles of evaluation" that compromise a moral system? 

Morality is a system whose purpose is to prevent harm and evil that aims at promoting human flourishing. The purpose of a moral system is to prevent harm or suffering. Some of the key differences between the rules of conduct and the principles of evaluation are their rules, standards, directives, including social ethical rules of conduct. 

3. What does Bernard Gert mean when he describes morality in terms of a "public system"? Why is the notion of "personal morality" an oxymoron? 

   Gert meant that everyone should be able to know and define the rules in terms of a public system. As for the notion of personal morality as an oxymoron, it    was implied in such a way to express contradicting definition considering being personal in nature will be used intentionally to prove a statement.

4. Why does Gert believe that morality is an "informal" system? How is a moral system both similar to, and different from, a game? 

Morality is informal, as Gert stated, because a moral system has no formal authoritative judges presiding over it. Unlike games in professional sports that have rules enforced by referees in a manner that approaches a legal system, morality is less formal. 

5. Describe how the ideals of "rationality" and "impartiality" function in Gert's moral system.

Moral system is rational in that is it is based on principles of logical reason accessible to ordinary persons. Morality cannot involve special knowledge that can only be understood by priviledged individuals or groups. 

6. What are the values and what are some of the key differences between moral values and nonmoral values?

Values can either be moral or nonmoral values wherein moral values need to be distiguished from the broader set of nonmoral values. 

7. How do religion, law, and philosophy each provide different grounds for justifying a moral principle?

Religion defines moral principles as based on how to do or not to do things according to the divine authority. The law defines moral principles as based on how wrong or right according to the obedience to a legal system. Philosophy defines moral principles as based on the ethical theories and logical arguments stated with it.  

8. What is the method of philosophical ethics and what is a philosophical study?

Philosophical method is analyzing moral issues in a normative manner, in contrast to the descriptive method that is used by social scientists. Philosophical study requires a consistent methodological scheme be used to verify hypotheses and theories, and these verification schemes must satisfy criteria of rationality and impartiality. Philosophers confirm or reject the plausibility of a certain claim or thesis by testing it against the rules of logical argumentation. It also use ethical theory in the analysis and deliberation of the issues.

9. How does philosophical study differ mfrom a descriptive study?rather than normative in nature?

Philosophers confirm or reject the plausibility of a certain claim or thesis by testing it against the rules of logical argumentation compared to how a typical scientist usually do something to prove a thesis or a claim. It also use ethical theory in the analysis and deliberation of the issues.

10. Summarize the four diff. kinds of "discussion stoppers" in ethical discourse.

     1.     People Disagree on Solutions to Moral Issues

                - Because different people often have different beliefs as to the correct answer to many moral questions, some infer that there is no hope of reaching                     any kind of agreement on answers to any moral question. Some conclude that any meaningful discourse about morality is impossible. 

     2.     Who Am I to judge others?

                - People are often uncomfortable with the prospect of having to evaluate the moral beliefs and practices of others. We generally feel it is appropriate to                     describe the different moral beliefs that others have but that it is inappropriate to make judgements about the moral beliefs held by others. This is                     desctructive because we constantly judge others in the sense that we make certain evaluations about them. and in certain cases, we should make                     judgments about the beliefs and actions of others. 

     3.     Morality is Simply a Private Matter

                - Assuming that morality is essentially personal in nature and must be simply a private matter is both confused and problematic because private morality                     is essentially an oxymoron or contradictory in notion.  

     4.     Morality is Simply a Matter for Individual Cultures to Decide

                - Some assume that morality can be best understood not so much as a private or a personal matter but as something for groups or cultures to                     determine. A moral system is dependent on a particular culture oir group.

11. Why are these discussion stoippers problematic for the advancement of dialogue and debate about ethical issues?

Because it gives them an excuse to stop debating over ethical issues.

12. What is moral relativism? How is it different from cultural relativism?

Cultural relativisim is essentially a descriptive thesis while moral relativism is a normative thesis becvause it asserts that one should make moral judgements about the behavior of people who live in cultures other than one's own.

 13. What is ethical theory, and what important functions do ethical theories play in the analysis of moral issues?

Ethical theory provides us with a framework for analyzing moral issues via a scheme that is internally coherent and consistent as well as comprehensive and systematic.

14. What are the distinguishing features of consequence-based ethical theories?

Utilitarians argue that it is the outcome or the consequences for the greatest number of individuals in a given society that is considered in moral deliberation.

15. Describe some of the key features between act and rule utilitarianism. 

Act utilitarianism is focusing simply on the roles that individual acts and policies played in providing the overall social good while rule utilitarianism is focusing on the following rules or principles, not the consequences of individual acts, ultimately matter in determining whether or not a certain practice is morally permissible.

16. Which feature distinguish duty-based ethical theories from alternative tyes of theories? 

Its notion that human beings are rational beings wherein we are able to reflect upon situations and make moral choices in a way that other creatures cannot.

17. Describe some of the main differences beweent act deontology and rule deontology.

Rule deontology is based on certain rules or principles while act deontology is based on certain actions which we impart on.

18. What is meant by the expression contract-based ethical theories?

It is when virtue comes into being by contractual agreements between individuals.

19. What features distinguish character-based ethical theories from alternative schemes of morality?

This ethical theory ignores the special roles that consequences, duties, and social contracts play in moral systems, especially with respect to determining the appropriate standard for evalating moral behavior.

20. How does James Moor's "Just consequentialist" theory incorporate aspects of utilitarianism and deontological theories into one comprehensive framework?

He belives that only an ethical approach that combines considerations of consequences of action with more traditional deontological considerations of duties, rights, and justice can provide us with a defensible ethical theory that yileds a useful frameork for applied ethics.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

1. I think those four stated in this chapter would do -- for now -- considering my poor regard to deep philosophies will might be essential for me to elaborate on this        topic.

2. Reaching a solution to the given dilemma in the situation of the company's financial struggle is analyzing first how to measure the               happiness and the goodness of the outcome. Having done that, I realized that in such situation, I will take the second proposal which is      laying off 5 percent of the workers to give consistent benefit and compensation to the other 95 percent. This may be an obvious      decision if using an act utilitarian approach of decision making which I personally prefer because it is doing the right action which      produces the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of beings.

3. That principle will not work in every situation but taking regard to my friend's dangerous situation, I may have to consider my promise first before telling the               authorites about it.

4. There will always be room for improvement which is why nailing the traditional issues to just four ethical theories won't be enough to handle all of the moral issues that arise as a result of cybertechnology.